The Cobb Douglas Function

The Cobb Douglas FunctionThis chapter go forth dissertate the estimated techniques theories and the comparability, it is admit the Unit root bear witness and Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Bounds sieve. And the in constitution sources also discuss in this part.3.1 Endogenous growth possible action and castingIn the stinting condition, the Cobb-Douglas leadal form of doing conks is comm further utilise to represent the relationship of an outfit to inputs. It was predic skirt by Knut Wicksell (1851-1926) and examinati geniusd against statistical evidence by Charles Cobb and Paul Douglas in the old age of 1900-1928. The exertion function is readn as infraY = ALK, (1)Where the symbol of variety for the Cobb-Douglas function is= Total outpution (the monetary value of altogether goods dumbfoundd in a year)= task input= heavy(p) input= Total cropiveness growthThe and argon the output elasticity of projection and metropolis letter simultaneously. These d e bournine are uninterrupted de limitined by available technology.For output eleasticity the receptivity of output to a change in aims of both crunch and jacket crown absorb in production in the condition of ceteris paribus. Such as if =0.20, it leave alone show that the 1% growth in labor will lead to a 0.2% growth in output. + = 1,These function indicate that the unremitting redress to scale in production function. That means if L and K are each add-on 30%, Y will plus in 30% too.If the return to scale are decreasing and return to scale are extend, this will be show as belowExpect it on the perfect competition, the and bath be indicate to be the both labor and great(p) share of output.The Cobb-Douglas function are influnced by statistical evidence that come into sight to show that labor and great(p) shares of sum up output are uninterrupted everywhere time in developed countries, the seekers clarified this by statistical fitting least squares throwback in t heir production function. It is show that having doubt over whether constancy over time exists.But according to Yao and Wei (2007), by joint ventures local dissolutes gravel been able to imitate opposed technologies and started to produce their own determines or add up parts to conflicting industries. There is no doubt that FDI has non only helped reform the production efficiency of national firms but also helped to poke Koreas production line towards the worlds most advanced levels. Assume that in that respect are two countries in the world one is an industrialized economy A and the opposite is a newly industrializing economy (B) and both countries will get a desire a Cobb-Douglas production technology(2)Where Y, K, L are respectively to rough-cut interior(prenominal) product, large(p) and labor, j and t denote outlandish (A, B) and time. And g(z) is a function of conglome identify factors affecting production efficiency and the production frontier, including make doings, gentleman capital, FDI, institutions and others. As landed estate A is richer and has a high(prenominal) K/L ratio than rude B, country A tends to make investment fundss in B in couch to maximize returns to capital, as grand as YBt /KBt YAt /KAt holds true. t tout ensemble(a)y to Yao and Wei (2007), in this two-country perspective, both countries should suck mutual returns for cross-border movement of capital to take place. The improvement for A is that it washbasinnister maximize returns to its capital and has access to Bs trade. The benefit for B is that it earth-closet have access to As technology and improve per capita income so that the income gap mingled with A and B declines over time. other(prenominal) assumption is that both countries invest in science and technology to relieve oneself intimacy and innovation. However, beca example A has better endowments in both physical and human capital, it is more able to innovate and accordingly produce a higher level of output disposed(p) the same level of inputs in simile with B. The only way for B to decrease this technological gap is through importation of As technology embedded through FDI.But again from according Yao and Wei (2007) that the intent of FDI faeces recommend by their two propositions. maidenly, they given the same unshakable state of Bs technology, FDI can improve Bs production efficiency because foreign invested firms are front runners in the espousal of GPTs because of their superior human capital, management and organizational structure. Domestic firms can be trained from foreign invested firms through learning by watching. They also have incentives to become more proficient and competitive because they fear losing out to foreign invested firms.The moving sum of FDI on production efficiency of B can be illust cropd in Figure 1. Production frontier of A and B, denotes the production frontier of B. At a steady state when input is improve at X0, the li teral level of domestic production is Yd0 without the effect of FDI. If FDI has a supreme degree impact on production efficiency at this steady state, or YB/FDIB 0, the actual level of production will jumpstart to Yf 0. The net moving effect of FDI on country Bs production is (Yf 0 Yd0). Second proposition catch that FDI is a shifter of the domestic production frontier. If FDI does not have a transmutation effect, the maximum output of B can never go above PFB. If FDI has a shifting effect, country Bs maximum potential output can be as high as those located on PFA, which is the production frontier of A. (Cobb-Douglas. Wikipedia. Retrieved April 20, 2010, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobb%E2%80%93Douglas)Figure 3.1 Production Frontier of A and B and the role of FDI in B.Y PFAYftPFBYdtYf0Yd00 X0 X1XFor example, without a shifting effect, the actual level of production may move from Yf 0 at the sign steady state to Ydt at the new steady state with a new input mix Xt. The ma ximum possible output of B at the new level of input will be on PFB or below. If FDI has a shifting effect, the actual level of output can go above PFB, with a maximum potential output to be on PFA. In Fig. 1, if the new actual output is Yf t , which is placed amongst the two frontiers, it means that the production frontier of B has been shifted towards PFA from PFB. This positive shifting effect can be explicit as YB/FDI = f (t)0, implying that the marginal product of FDI is an increasing function of time (Yao and Wei, 2007).According to Yao and Wei (2007) indicate that with Propositions 1 and 2, country Bs production function can be rewritten as(3)And FDI is part of the multiplier ABt along with a roach of other changeables Z1 which can also improve production efficiency. Be gradients, FDI enters the residual term to be a shifter of the production frontier along with other variables, including a time crook t , which captures the Hicks neutral technological put across in B i n the absence of FDI or foreign technologies, t * FDI captures the additional technological progress that is attributed only to FDI. The total effect of FDI on economic growth in country B can be expressed as(4)The first part on the right-hand side of (4) measures the moving effect, and the second part the shifting effect of FDI on YB. If both effects are positive and momentous, the above two propositions hold true. mend the traditional growth theory considered only two factors of production, namely capital and labor, this new growth theory adds a third, technology. Endogenous growth theory or new growth theory focuses on the wider concept of technology, which is expressed through ideas, instead of objects or products. It necessitates a different set of institutional arrangements, like pricing systems, taxation or incentives to ensure the efficient tryst of ideas. These types of patterns are sometimes called Schumpeterian forges because Schumpeter emphasized the importance of te mporary monopolistic part over discoveries, as a motivating force for continued progressive impact.A great deal of evidence has been produced in recent years casting doubt on endogenetic growth theory. Mankiw, Romer and Weil (1992) argue that the classical growth model of Solow and Swan with exogenous technological progress and diminish returns to capital, excuses most of the cross-country variation in output per person. The Schumpeterian variant of endogenous growth theory that emphasizes technological progress, innovation and RD has come under specially heavy fire.Endogenous growth models attempt to explain a great proportion of discovered growth as well as wherefore different countries run across different growth rate. They generally use the classic model but allow the production function to exhibit increasing returns to scale, focus on externalities and assume that technological change, although beta, is not necessary to explain long-run growth. In 1986, paper of Ro mer ignores physical capital and only considers knowledge but a general form of his model can be written asY = A(R) F (Rj, Kj, Lj) (5)Where R j, K j and L j are, respectively, root turn outs from research and development expenditure by firm j, physical capital of firm j and labor of firm j R is the aggregate stock of knowledge. Any private research effort will have a spillover effect for the public stock of knowledge A(R). This type of model can explain why countries experience different growth rates. A country with an initial higher level of K experiences a higher rate of growth of K atomic number 82 to a higher rate of growth of per capita income because such a country is more experienced through learning by doing. This is an external effect that prevents diminishing returns.3.2 Model specificationThe previous empirical studies have proven that gross domestic product can be determined by the following variables labor and capital as rudimentary physical inputs exporting, FDI a nd foreign step in rate policy as variables of openness. The following model regression will include all these variables.(6)Where t (t = 1976, , 2008) denote year t, k and l capital stock (Gross fixed capital accumulation) and total labor force, fdi = FDI inflow, exp = total export and exc = solid flip rate. Lastly, the Y is the Gross domestic product in economic growth and the is mistake term. information for GDP are gain domestic product and capital is calibrated below based on investment in fixed summations. All the variables are calculated in 2000 constant prices. GDP is derived from sincere GDP annual superpoweres by province. Labor is total labor force in each province. FDI is actually use FDI inflows. Export is the total value of exports.The description of FDI in the production model needs careful consideration. Because capital stock is the accumulation of fixed asset investment, which includes both domestic and foreign investments, the production function would be mis-specified if FDI, both measured as a flow or stock, were added as another explanatory variable along with capital stock. In the previous literary productions, export and exchange rate also has been found to be relevant variables in the production function. Like FDI, export is defined as total FDI inflows and total export in Korea therefore can effect to output.The value of exports and FDI are provided in US dollars (USD) in the official statistics. Since they are measured in US dollars, most economic analysts do not bother to collapse the set in current prices into values in constant prices (e.g. Liu et al., 1997 Liu, 2000). It is important to conduct an appropriate deflation. One relevant deflator is the US consumer price index. The values of trade and FDI in nominal dollars are deflated by this index. Since all the other variables in the model are measured in KRW100, it is utilizable to change these two variables in KRW as well.Exchange rate is real exchange rate, which is time-variant but location-invariant as all the provinces faced the same foreign exchange rate. Beside this, real exchange rate should be derived from the exchange rates and price indexes of Koreas main trading partners. However, since KRW follows the US dollar very closely, albeit not pegged to the dollar, only the dollar exchange rate and the US price index are use to calculate the real exchange rate. concrete exchange rate is expected to have a positive sign charm on economic growth because it represents Chinas competitiveness in international trade and the extent of market liberalization in the foreign exchange market from Yao and Zhang (2001). The expectation result for the variable of capital stock, labor, human capital, FDI, export and real exchange rate are expect getting the significant and positive relationship to economic growth.3.3 Empirical methodology3.3.1 Unit root raiseA whole root riddle is vital in spy the stationery of time serial data. It is main to estim ate about the variables observed have a tendency to return to the long term trend follow a shock (stationery) or the variables follow a stochastic passport which containing a social unit root. If the variables follow a random walk after a temporary or permanent shock, the regression between variables is spurious (Amiruddin, Nor and Ismail 2007). According to the Grauss-Markovs theorem, in such cases, the serial do not have a finite variance. Hence the OLS will not produce consistent parameter estimates.A nonmoving series is one whose basic properties, for example it mean and its variance, do not change it over time. In contrast, a non- unmoving series has one or more basic properties that do change over time. If the time series variable is stationery,i) The mean of is constant over timeii) The variance of is constant over timeiii) The simplistic correlation coefficient between and depends on the length of the toss away (k) but on no other variable (for all k).The unit root l eaven can separate into 2 trial run, that is increase dicky Fuller (ADF) test and Phillips Perron (PP) test. This will test for level (original series), first differences and second differences (changes). If stationary at level, then the series are integrated of order zero, I(0) and if stationary at first differences and second differences, the series are integrated of order one and two, I(1) and I(2) respectively.The Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic and Phillips-Perron test statistic to estimate the stationary for the variables. The results are and the assumption will indicate as belowHypothesisHo No stationaryHa StationaryHence, p-value should small tahan 0.05, then jilted Ho, that is stationary, if harm to reject Ho, that means no stationary.3.3.2 Autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL)-Bound testThe Bound examen Method can use to estimate the small size ensample data in between 30 observations. Therefore, one of the conditions is the drug-addicted variables must be in I(1) and the dependent variables can be mixed in I(0) and I(1), but not the I(2). For example Y=a+b1X1+b2X2+b3X3+e. The variable Y must stationary at order one or I(1) and the X1,X2 and X3 can be in I(0) or I(1) or mixed. For the simplicity, the Bound testing can be shown as(7)The Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) method developed by Pesaran et al. (2001) was used to establish co-integration relationships among the variables. And it can use to overcome the stationary problem in the time-series regression. The advantage of the ARDL method is it can be applied to the model whether the unconditional variables are stationary at I (0) or I (1). The dependent variable must stationary in I (1). As a result, a dynamic model known as the Autoregressive Distributed lag model (ARDL) will be estimated and can be written as(8)This equation shows that output growth is effects by values of explanatory variables as well as the lagged dependent and explanatory variables. The demarcation te st used the conventional F-test compare to the lively value to detect the presence of co-integrating relationship. The critical value is base on the Narayan (2005) postpone of critical values for the saltation test case III Unrestricted interpose and no trend. If the F-test is higher than the speeding dancing critical value, the hypothesis of no-co-integration is rejected. Beside this, if an F-statistic is begin than the turn down bound critical value implies that the absences of the co-integration. If the F-statistic is in between the lower bound and speed bound, there is no clear indication of the absence or man of co-integration relationship.Using Wald test to investigate the joint hypothesis is,HoHaThe conclusion for the hypothesis can be separate to three part, that isi) If the Wald F-statistic set above the upper critical value- cointegration exists.ii) If the Wald F-statistic falls down between the lower bound and upper bound critical value- inconclusive.iii) If th e Wald F-statistic falls below the lower bound critical value-no cointegration exists.Furthermore, an illusion Correlation Model (ECM) also use with the Bound test, the form is(9)Where, 1-L is the difference operator f(yt,xt)trend trend term long run multiplierTherefore, from the ARDL model, we can use the Bewleys (1979) regression burn up to obtain the long run model.(i=1,2,,k) (10)Where, and , i= 1,2,, k are the selected (estimated) values of and , i=1,2,..,k.However, the poor run dynamic model is estimated base on the Unrestricted Error bailiwick Model (UECM) model.(11)Where ECT represents as a long run steady point or partial appointment term as below(12)And using the Wald test to compute the long run elasticities and it measuring break is1-Sum of the dependent coefficients= Sum of the sovereign coefficients (13)3.4 DataThe secondary data set consists of the annually data of the Korea economy for the occlusion of 1976 to 2008 obtained from World Bank database, UC Atlas of Global Inequality, International Monetary farm animal (IMF), International Financial Statistic (IFS), Korea National Statistical and United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Since the ultimate goal is to perform regression analysis with the data expressed in natural logarithms, it may instead handle to work with the log and proxy for variable as belowCHAPTER 4REGRESSION RESULTS4.0 IntroductionAugmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test and Phillips Perron (PP) test and Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL).4.1 Unit root testIn this study, two stationary tests on individual stochastic trend are conducted, that is Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) and Phillip-Perron (PP) tests which have been used frequently I time series data. The value of ADF t-statistic and PP z-statistic will be compared to the critical value given by MacKinnon (1991). The time series under consideration should be integrated in the same order before we can proceed to cointegration analysis and condit ion test. The result can be show as below4.1.1 Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test found on the result as below Table 4.1.1, it show that result for Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic in Unit Root test. This test is function to know the stationary of data for variable. In the result, the dependent variable and all explanatory variables are significant on the first and second differences for the constant with trends and constant without trends. This is because the p-value is small than 0.05 at significant level. So, we will rejected Ho and conclude that the data is stationary when first difference. Therefore, all series are I(1) process. versatileLevelFirst DifferencesConstant with trendsConstant without trendsConstant with trendsConstant without trendst-statp-valuet-statp-valuet-statp-valuet-statp-value economical growth (y)-2.070027(0)0.54212.327602(0)0.9999-5.756136*(0)0.0003-4.782721*(0)0.0006Capital stock (k)-1.911924(0)0.6251-0.546014(0)0.8689-4.515321*(1)0.0060-4.361648*(0) 0.0017Labor force (l)-0.459604(0)0.9804-1.009485(0)0.6241-4.564489*(0)0.0051-4.425029*(0)0.0014FDI (fdi)-4.190134(1)0.0125-1.009485(3)0.7363-2.892944*(8)0.1825-6.300895*(2)0.0000Export (exp)2.708182(0)1.00005.784347(0)1.0000-3.567930*(0)0.0495-2.184710(0)0.2155Real exchange rate (exc)-2.246001(0)0.4496-1.594207(0)0.4739-5.035710*(0)0.0016-5.101766*(0)0.0002Table 4.1.1 Result Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) testCriteria Schwarz Info Criterion (SIC)VariableLevelFirst DifferencesConstant with trendsConstant without trendsConstant with trendsConstant without trendst-statp-valuet-statp-valuet-statp-valuet-statp-valueEconomic growth (y)-2.815698(18)0.20233.136859(7)1.0000-6.399643*(11)0.0000-4.778071*(1)0.0006Capital stock (k)-2.096298(2)0.5282-0.519748(5)0.8745-4.100869*(7)0.0153-4.204347*(7)0.0026Labor force (l)-0.631981(1)0.9699-1.228256(1)0.6498-4.564489*(0)0.0051-4.423468*(1)0.0014FDI (fdi)-1.392163(31)0.8440-1.577055(31)0.4824-4.828185*(12)0.0027-5.032975*(13)0.0003Export (exp)4.40793 5(8)1.00006.050077(5)1.0000-3.555909*(1)0.0507-2.042327(1)0.2683Real exchange rate (exc)-2.374756(1)0.3848-1.615847(1)0.4631-4.981815*(3)0.0018-5.068019*(2)0.0003 personal line of credit The number in parenthesis are lag length. The test employ a null hypothesis of a unit root. All series are log transformed. *Indicate that 5% at significant level.Table 4.1.2 Result Phillips-Perron (PP) testCriteria Schwarz Info Criterion (SIC) air The number in parenthesis are lag length. The test employ a null hypothesis of a unit root. All series are log transformed. *Indicate that 5% at significant level.4.1.2 Phillips-Perron (PP) testBased on the result as above Table 4.1.2, it show that result for Phillips-Perron (PP) test statistic in Unit Root test. This test is function to know the stationary of data for variable. In the result, the dependent variable and all explanatory variables are significant on the first and second differences for the constant with trends and constant without trends. T his is because the p-value is small than 0.05 at significant level. So, we will rejected Ho and conclude that the data is stationary when first difference from the result of PP test. Therefore, all variables are integrated of order I(1).4.2 Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) testThe condition of the bound testing is the dependent variable must be in I(1) and the independent variables can be mixed in I(0) and I(1). The y is I(1) and the independent variable is mixed in I(0) and I(1)., the estimation of co-integration can be done by using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL). The Bound test technique is applied to examine the long run relationship between the exchange rate and its determinants. The result of the estimated ARDL model for Malaysia is reported as Table 4.2. The goodness of fit of the model (adjusted R-squared (Adjusted-R2)) and the standard error of regression are higher.Based on the table 4.2, includes the symptomatic tests used to confirm the validity of the mo del. These several important diagnostic test has been carry out in order to strengthen the verity of the results. The result of the diagnostic test indicated that the residual of the model is normally distributed. Beside this, there are no heteroskedasticitity and no serial correlation. However, the model successes to pass the Ramsey determine test. Since all the hazard is larger than 0.05 (5%) significant level. Thus, hypothesis failed to reject the Ho, hence there are absence of those problem in the model carried out.Note The critical values are cited from Narayan(2005).(Table case III Unrestricted intercept and no trendpg1988). *,**and *** denote significant at 10%,5% and 1% significance level, respectively.Based on the Table 4.3, the results of bound cointegration test simply demonstrated that the null hypothesis is, against the alternative hypothesis is easily rejected at 1% significant level. The model shows that the determinant variables are strongly cointegrated with ec onomic growth in Korea. The result showed that the F-statistic compute by Wald test is highly significant at 1% significance level. The F-statistic is 8.742069, which is greater than the upper critical bound value of 6.040, so it is showed that cointegration exists. Hence, based on the test result, there exist cointegration or long run relationship among the economic growth, capital stock, labor, foreign direct investment, export and real exchange rate.(14)Based on the Table 4.4 reported the long run elasticity between the variables use the ARDL test. The expected sign of the variables are indicate in this table and the estimated coefficient for capital stock (k) is positive 0.764333 and has consistent sign with the expected sign. This implies that an increase in the capital stock by 1 trillion US clam (US$), the gross domestic product (GDP) will increase 0.764333 billion US Dollar (US$). The standard error is 1.594101 and probability 0.6359 is the p-value in the model.For the lab or force (l), the estimated coefficient is positive sign, it is 25318.75 and which is consistent with the expected sign. The coefficient means that when 1 unit labor force increase, the GDP will increase 25318.75 US Dollar (US$). The probability is 0.4858 and standard error is 35765.61.In addition, the foreign direct investment (fdi) in estimated coefficient is positive 5.627353 and same with the expected sign. This indicate that when increase 1 billion US Dollar (US$) in the foreign direct investment, the GDP will increase 5.627353 billion US Dollar (US$). The p-value is 0.4313 and standard error is 7.032203.The estimated coefficient for export (exp) is positive 0.798721, it has consistent sign with the expected sign. This implies that an increase 1 billion US Dollar (US$) in export, the GDP will increase 0.798721 billion US Dollar (US$). The standard error for export is 0.204665 and the probability is 0.0007.In the case of real exchange rate (exc), the estimated coefficient is pos itive 173672187.2 and is kindred with the expected sign. The coefficient means that when real exchange rate increase in 1 units of Korea Won 100 (KRW100) per US$ 1, the GDP will leads to increase in 173672187.2 US Dollar (US$). The p-value for real exchange rate is 0.1910 and standard error is 1.29E+18.4.5 The Error Correction Model (ECM) testThe result of the Error Correction Model is reported at Table 4.6 and the Error Correction Term (ECT) is shows as below(15)So, the ECT equation will be generated into compact run dynamic model.Based on the Table 4.5, the error correction term (ECT) is -0.090218. This implies that speed of adjustment to the long run stableness is very slow which is 0.09. It is negative sign and rapid adjustment from a short term imbalance. The negative sign of the ECT means when there is a short run shocks occur, the gap is closed towards the adjustment process to the long run stability. This implies that the imbalance of output growth in the short run maybe a djusted with error corrections that resume the long term equilibrium. Approximately a high percentage of 89.7% of the gross domestic product can be clarify by the capital stock, labor, foreign direct investment, export and real exchange rate selected.Furthermore, the variable of capital stock (k) is significantly influence the gross domestic product (GDP/y) in the short run. The capital stock represents the gross fixed capital formation to be the most important factor that influences the gross domestic product in Korea. The capital stock, labor (l), foreign direct investment (fdi), export (exp) and real exchange rate (exc) is statistically positive influence in the current year of gross domestic product. As mentioned in literature review, this all explanatory variables should be elastic, portrays a positive sign and is should be a statistically variable in most of the research.In the short run, capital stock is statistically significant and positive sign to the gross domestic produc t for Korea. When capital stock is increase 1 billion US Dollar (US$), the gross domestic product will attracts close to increase 1.249795 billion US Dollar (US$). Beside this, when the labor is increase 1 unit labor force, the gross domestic product will increase 2308.908 US Dollar (US$). And if the foreign direct investment increase 1 billion US Dollar (US$), the gross domestic product will increase 0.508124 billion US Dollar (US$). If export increase in 1 billion US Dollar (US$), gross domestic product will increase 0.072330 billion US Dollar (US$). Lastly, when the real exchange rate is increase in 1 units of Korea Won 100(KRW100) per US$ 1, the GDP will increase in 15708616 US Dollar (US$).

Description of a participatory action oriented course

Description of a democratic action oriented feed inPROGRAMME DESCRIPTION OF A participatory ACTION-ORIENTED PAOT COURSEBackgroundWe will be conducting a PAOT on ferment improvement in small enterprises (WISE) course over a unity week period. The PAOT course is not a formal lecture, is interactive and role player centred. It is recognised that SMEs contribute signifi movetly to the national economy and that they ar huge employers. It is also recognised that however, they do not always have a preventive or safety culture. They do not employ OSH practitioners nor do the employees and employers alike receive formal OSH training. Hence the death penalty of the WISE programme as one of the PAOT methodologies, whose aim is to improve working conditions/OSH in the employment and productivity using simple, effective and affordable techniques that provide benefits to owners/employers, workers and the community. Facilitators will do preliminary work, send invitations to place player s. Other significant persons will be also invited as the programme will detail.Target conclave and participants dickens facilitators will provide guidance and steer the programme. Invitations will be panoptic to 30 participants drawn from the local anaesthetic informal small to medium home base enterprises. These will consist of largely the employees or owners who do day to day work and including their supervisors, managers or owners who do supervisory or managerial work. Invited valuable observers will include two members of the community local leadership, one functionary from The Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welf be and one re layative from the pecuniary sponsor of material ILO, Zimbabwe Decent Work ProgrammeGeneral and ad hoc objectivesGeneral objective Make participants become aware that investment in little cost permanent simple improvements results in more live up to and productive workers, more satisfied mangers who, together with the workers, will ensure good safe studys, leading ultimately to a more successful sustainable business.Specific objectives (for the participants)Learn application of the checklist for the purpose of selecting antecedence workplace improvements in their SMEs in the local setting for, materials storage and handling, workstation, machine safety, control of insidious substances, lighting, welfare facilities, industrial facilities and work organisation.Identify and focus on ordinarily encountered working conditions problems in the in a higher place mentioned areas.Point out the local and usually available simple low cost workplace improvements for the identified problems. yoke better working conditions to better productivity.Course outline and contentsDates29 December 2014 to 2 January 2015 (five days)Venue Local Community Hall turn up Visit A walking distance from the Hall, an SME that is into furniture makingFacilitatorsDr B. Ziki and Mr D. MoyoParticipants 30 (split into 5 groups of six indivi duals)Course content Will include the narration of PAOT, concept of PAOT, its advantages, the WISE methodology, scope for improvement and emphasis on the tapping of local wisdom for low cost sustainable workplace improvements in the SMEs. mean solar day 1 to 5 Will be guided by the above course content. Activities will include The opening ceremony, introductions, orientation, workplace visit, checklist exercise, group word of honor of checklist results, presentation of group results, technical sessions one or two a day, implementation of improvements with an action plan, workshop evaluation and closing.MethodologyFacilitators will do preliminary work, visiting SMEs, finding and taking pictures of good examples to be utilise for discussion.A spacious venue where island sitting (round table) arrangement is possible is chosen. It moldiness also be near the visit siteOn the jump day later onward the opening ceremony, the course outline is presented and soon by and by there wil l be a site visit to a chose workplace.The 30 participants are split into five groups of six each. Each group will complete a checklist. A spokesperson is chosen and after discussions, he or she will point out important observations and low cost sustainable suggestions for improvement.No negative criticism is allowed.A contrastive aspect of the WISE programme is tackled each day. Facilitator gives an outline of the topic for discussion and provides good examples and allows participants to discuss on the topic.Last will be implementation of improvements with an action plan, workshop evaluation and closing of the workshop.Timetablemilitary rating and follow-upEvaluation of the PAOT course is necessary to assess usefulness, effectiveness and areas that were good and those that need improvement. Participants are given evaluation forms which they fill in and immediately return. Feedback is given after all forms are looked at. Participants also must demonstrate assimilation of randomnes s and that they are ready to undertake self help actions to improve workplace conditions in their local settings. They are reminded to do checklists at their workplaces, identify priority areas that need improvement and draw action plans. Participants are encouraged to luck experiences with each other and with their or fellow employees, as well as continue to improve even on improvements already made. They are therefore issued with certificates of attendance.A tentative calendar for follow-up visits by the facilitators at the participants workplaces is drawn up. It is recommended that this is done two to three months after the course is conducted to assess the participants self help, low cost, and local practical solutions suggested and implemented to improve working conditions. After a walk through and discussions, positive developments are praised and the discussion must stimulate the participant to remain interested in the PAOT methodology and its ideals.A small, inexpensive an d clever (SIC) contest held anytime between two to twelve months is organised to show the group with the best SIC solutions to identified workplace condition/s needing priority attention. An achievement workshop can be planned for six months to a year after the PAOT course. Participants present on their achievements and sustainable improvements and the best presentation can be rewarded.References training modules A8.1 and 8.2Participatory Action-Oriented Training. Ton That Khai, Tsuyoshi Kawakami and Kazutaka Kogi. 2011. An ILO publication.Roles of Participatory Action-oriented Programs in Promoting Safety and Health at Work. Safety and Health at Work. Safe Health Work 20123155-65An introduction to the WISE Program. Conditions of Work and Employment Programme. An ILO initiative.

Global toy market

Global toy commercialize1.0 Background1.1. Global toy persistence ScenarioMore than 80% of global toy grocery is generated by ternary Continents i.e. Europe, North America and Asia. With the recent financial turmoil, the value of toy patience has decreased in two consecutive years, from US$78.67 one thousand thousand in year 2007 to US$75.033 billion. The shrinking foodstuff size is mainly attributed by Western countries, particularly Europe. On the side of the humans, Asia registered upward skid in grocery sh be for toy market. Chart 1 World tinker Market ScenarioNPD analysts attribute the downward trend in global market value for toy industry to the following reasonsLow unit expense particularly in year end, which intensified further by the financial crisesCannibalization by other games categories namely video games, electronic games etc.In developed market, the per capita us get along with for toys is high as they argon considered to be an entirely-important(prenomi nal) aid in a childs development vis-a-vis a wasteful expenditure in developing nations. The scenario is illustrated in below table- elude 1 Toy expenditure CountryKids population in 2008 (million) spend per kid in 2008 (US$) gist available market in 2008 (US$) coupled States61.6 $281$17.31 billionJapan17.4$286$5 billionChina267.4$17$4.5 billionUnited Kingdom10.3$348$3.6 billionFrance11.9$293$3.5 billionGermany11.4$223$2.5 billionBrazil52.9$38$2.01 billionIndia361.4$5$1.8 billionMexico32.6$53$1.7 billionItaly7.9$185$1.5 billion denotation NDP Group, 20091.2 Toy Industry StructureToys ar classified into four free categories, namely Traditional Toys which consist of action figures, wenchs, playsets, stuffed animals, models, and other related wargons get along gamesVideo GamesCasino Games Accessories. Globally, the market is dominated by four braggart(a) players viz savorlessel, Lego, Hasbro Bandai with Mattel the largest and selling toys under the deformity Barbie, intent Wheels, Fisher-Price etc. Table 2 Global toy makers ingathering portfolio Toy makerTraditional toys brands posting gamesVideo GamesLicensing productMattelBarbie, Break the Safe, Hot Wheels, Matchbox, Ameri shadower young lady, Fisher-Price, Little People, Rescue Heroes, Power WheelsUNOBarbie CareNCure, UNO, Barbie Girls, Hot Wheels etcDisney, Warner Bros., Pixar, Viacom International Inc., benni WorkshopHasbroMy Little Pony, SpongeBob, Toy StoryMonopoly, Pictureka, ScrabbleMon paintbarTransformer, G.I. Joe, Incredible Hulk, Jurassic Park, Spider-Man, Star Wars, Wolverine, Disney, Iron ManBai DanBen 10, Power Ranger, flying lizard Ball, Digimon, Blue Dragon nobodyKamen Rider, Harumika, Tamaguchi, Mugen Pop PopTMBen 10, Power Ranger, Dragon Ball, UltramanMGA EntertainmentBratz roam, Zapf Creation, Little Tikes, itch born, Chou Chou, MGA games, My-ePets 3D, Resue PetsTMNILNILNILDisneyDisney charactersNILDisney charactersDisney charactersLEGO LEGO bricksNILLEGONILTakara TomyPlarai l, Pocker Moser, Transformers, Tomica die-cast vechicles, Yumel and Nerul, Licca doll lineJinsei GamesTasinoko Production, Game softwareDisney charactersThere are several market signals have impacted to toy market.Globally, toy manufacturers are partnering with companies from other sectors, like fast-food chains in their merchandise promotion campaigns, e.g. McDonaldMushrooming of consecrated malls/stores for toys is becoming increasingly visible e.g. Toy R usretail consolidation in overseas markets has changed the landscape for toy exporters. Production of mental pictures establish on toy characters for television audience is a unique trend for promoting toy sales in the US.Toy makers are entering into licensing deals with movie studios to make products in the image of film characters e.g. Disney, Sony Picture, Bai Dan etc.1.3 Mattel Inc.1.3.1Mattel Inc. founded by Harold Matt Matson and Elliot Handler (hence the name matt-el) and incorporated in 1948 with Headquarter in Hawethorn e, Los Angeles County, California and afterwards relocate to El Segundo, CA in 1990. Barbie was brainchild by Elliot and shame Handler co-founders of the Mattel Toy Company. Ruth came up with the idea for Barbie after observation her daughter, Barbara Handler, play with paper dolls. The three-dimensional model for Barbie was a Germen doll Mattel refashioned the doll into an all-American version and named it after Barbara, who was then a teenager. Barbies boyfriend, Ken, was introduced in 1961 and named after Barbaras brother.1.3.2Since establishment, Mattels product portfolio has grown from its flagship brand, Barbie, to toy cars, board games, dolls, cuddly toys and education toys Mattel offers comprehensive product lines to bring home the bacon for different age groups new born to adult segments. This can encourage repeat customer and attract different customer profiles with its range of different toys. Table 3 Mattel Inc.s product range by market segments Market segment Bra ndInfantPre-schoolSchool KidsTweens Pre-teensTeens (12 years above)Adults / ParentsBarbiePPPPFisher PricePPPHot WheelPPTyco ToysPPPAmerican GirlsPPSesame StreetPPPUNOPPScramblePPPMyScene DollsP1.3.3 Mattels Corporate Structure1.3.4 Business Model Broadly, Mattel Inc.s businesses are segmented by geographically domestically and internally. Mattels presence at Canada, Latin America, European, Asian countries, Australia, and New Zealand.1.3.5 Along its establishment in the market, Mattel has gone by several hypes and downsTable 4 Mattel Inc. Events in chronological orderwinner storiesFailures* 1959 Barbie debut * 1965 Enters Educational Market with See N Say * 1968 Hot Wheels Introduced * 1977 Ventures into Electronic Game Market * 1993 Merges with Fisher-Price * 1996 Introduces Tickle Me Elmo * 1998 Fisher-Price takes control of Infant and Preschool showcase Brands * 1998- Acquired Pleasant Company, the maker of the American Girl collection, which is a series of diachroni c dolls, books and accessories * Mattel says the average American girl owns ten Barbie dolls, and two are exchange somewhere in the world every second * As a teenage fashion model, Barbie has worn many fabulous fashions. Beginning with her hallmark black and white striped swimsuit and swirled ponytail, Barbie has followed style trends as puff up as blazed her own fashion trail. She even inspired some of fashions snarf designers * Barbie celebrates her 50th birthday in 2009. * Mattels Barbie opened her first flagship store on March 6, 2009, six-story showpiece at Shanghai . The store will also be a testing ground for new marketing strategies and services, including a design center where visitors can create their own dolls* Sold The instruction Company at a lost in year 2000 * harmful Toys Scandal. Recalled millions of China-made toys as potential hazards from parts of the toys which were colored using lead-based paint that may have exceeded the US Federal limit of 600 part pe r million. 18.2 million items were recalled in total in year 2007.2.0 Mattels sight and Mission Jennifer2.1 Mattels Philanthropic VisionTo make a meaningful difference, one child at a time.2.2 Mattels Philanthropic MissionMattel makes a difference in the global golf club by effectively serving children in need. Partnering with charitable organizations dedicated to direct serving children, Mattel creates joy through the Mattel Childrens Foundation, product donations, grant making and the micturate of employee volunteers. We also enrich the lives of Mattel employees by identifying diverse volunteer opportunities and supporting their personal contributions through the matching gifts program.2.3 Mattels Philanthropic ValuesWe intend to make a meaningful difference in the lives of children in need around the world through our interactions how we play with our communities, our partners, and our volunteers. gaming with Passion By making a meaningful and lasting impact on children g lobally.Play Together By forming deep partnerships to enrich the communities in which we work and play, and engaging Mattel employees in our efforts.Play Fair By acting with unwavering integrity in all aspects of our work.Play to Grow By striving to make long experimental condition differences in the lives of children in need and seeking continuous improvement. 3.0 The External sagacity Ezuan Issues to discuss OpportunitiesAn alliance with an Asian company, BandaiWeakening dollar makes Mattels products more low-priced in many of these new marketsgreatest pressures to adapting products with the constant changing of society* etc ThreatsChildren abandon tangible toys such Hot Wheels and Barbie for more interactive and expert products.Need extreme careful to protect customers legal and moral reputations by respecting the privacy of the children and their families, which is put in jeopardy every time the website asks a minor to provide information.Global recessionproblems breaking into foreign markets due(p) to cultural barriersAfter-effect of Toxic Toys Scandal with 18.2 million items were recalled in total in year 2007EtcExternal Factor Evaluation (EFE) intercellular substance Key inside FactorsWeightage military rankWeighted scoreOpportunities1. Barbie an recognizable brand worldwide0.140.42. Weakening dollar makes results market affordability 0.130.33. Favorable US duty law0.0530.15Threats1. Children abandon tangible toys for more interactive and technological products.0.110.22. Global recession cause reduce spending or down trading for toy0.0510.13. Cultural barriers hinder market penetration 0.110.14. High product substitution 0.110.15. organization Regulations and Environmental Quality0.0520.26. Higher bargain power from retailers0.0520.27. Raw material subject to price fluctuation0.0520.18. exceedingly appeaseal business0.0520.19. Rising in cyber virtual games0.110.110. Unpredictable shift in the play patterns of Gen X kids Netizen0.110.1Total 1.002.15Note Weight factor 0.0 (not important) to 1.0 (very important) military rank scale 1 = major failing 2 = Minor Weakness = Minor Strength 4 = Major Strength.Competitive Profile Matrix (CPM) for Mattel Inc.Wght.Mattel Inc.HasbroBai DanMGA Ent.DisneyLEGOTakara TomyRatingWSRatingWSRatingWSRatingWSRatingWSRatingWSRatingWSGlobal Market persona 0.1040.430.330.320.240.430.330.3Product Quality 0.1030.330.330.330.330.330.330.3Product variation 0.1540.640.630.4520.340.620.630.6Price competitive 0.1030.330.340.430.330.330.330.3engineering Innovation 0.1020.230.330.330.330.330.330.3Management Experience 0.1030.330.330.330.330.330.330.3Financial position 0.1030.330.330.330.330.330.330.1Customer dedication 0.1520.320.320.320.320.320.320.3Global expansion 0.1030.340.440.420.340.440.420.1Total 1.003.03.13.052.73.23.22.74.0 The Internal Assessment Ezuan Issues to be discussed Strengths big history in toy industryPreferred brand by customersReleasing new product per annumfollows a co de of ethics, as well as requiring ethical actions of their suppliers.contributes to the communitiesmerged with or struck licensing deals with a number of other established brands, including Disney, Fisher Price, Nascar, and even Microsoft.time obstetrical delivery of products to retailers has soared in recent years from 50% to 90%, due to improvements in information systems and warehouse facilities.product availability has been improved in particularised market with collaborative efforts with international firms, specifically Bandai Co. of Japan. able to simultaneously cater products to each markets taste, and maintain high flexibility and low costs by simplifying packaging strategiesetcWeaknesses * Until the acquisition of Fisher Price, most of Mattels attempts to expand beyond their radical market of childrens toys were largely unsuccessful Etc Internal Factor Evaluation (IFE) matrix Key Internal FactorsWeightageRatingWeighted scoreStrengths1. Barbie as a long established br and 60 years0.0540.22. recognizable brand portfolio0.1040.43. Wide product range to cater various(a) life stage0.1040.44. New product launch annually0.0530.155. Business Integrity0.0530.156. Corporate Social right0.0530.157. Strategic partnership with Microsoft, Disney, BanDai0.1030.38. Energetic management aggroup0.0530.159. Efficient automation of SCM 0.0530.1510. Trade names and trademarks as significant assets0.0540.2Weaknesses1. Unprofitable mergers and acquisitions 0.0520.12. Slipping popularity of their core product, Barbie. 0.1010.13. After-effect of Toxic Toys Scandal 0.1010.14. History of management struggles and uncertainty0.0520.15. Royalty expense for license agreement 0.0520.16. Liquidity problems or bankruptcy of key customersTotal1.002.75NoteWeight factor 0.0 (not important) to 1.0 (very important) Rating scale 1 = Major Weakness 2 = Minor Weakness = Minor Strength 4 = Major Strength. 5.0 Strategies in Action Jennifer6.0 dodge Analysis and Choice IsmiStrength s SWeaknesses WOpportunities OThreats T7.0 Implementing Strategies 7.1 Background The growth plan for Mattel Inc will be-Maintaining its Corporate Social Responsibility sustain its commitment to children, business partners, suppliers and environs Expending its territories with product diversification and business sustainability strengthen and gain market shareZero product recall to boost up its brand imageBelow illustrate the direction for Mattel Inc. to concentrate in-7.2.0 Mattel Inc.s counselor 7.2.1 Management Operation StrategiesThe massive recall incidence in 2007 Christmas season will be an occasion to be remembered for Mattel Inc. Thus it is essential for Mattel to rise its working relationship with their suppliers and business partners. Mattels product lines are manufactured in both company-owned facilities and through third-party manufacturers and the market demand is highly seasonal driven. In order to mitigate, it is crucial for Mattel to regard just-in-time inven tory practices to reduce backlog of orders. Mattel is attached to executing Global Manufacturing Principles (GMP) policy in all areas of its business, i.e. to all parties that manufacture, assemble, or distribute any product, or package bearing the Mattel logo, and, will further engage business partners commit to GMP. Mattel will ensure full deference of GMP by its business partners, and will assist them in meeting GMP requirements. The GMP principles are to ensure there is a holistic approach that all the key stakeholders are being well care off. To ensure the closed monitor the third party manufacturers, Mattel need to set up Centre of goodness (CoE) in selected geographical areas strategicalally. The main function of the CoE is to embark manufacturing intelligent and ensure smooth execution of GMP and developing best practice in the manufacturing for their strategic partners. 7.3 Marketing Strategies7.3.1 Segmentation Currently, Mattels product range is catered to wide rang e of age group, Market segment BrandInfantToddlersPre-School KidsTweens Pre-teensTeens (12 years above)Adults / ParentsBarbie

Preventing Dengue Fever in the Mauritius

Pr counterbalanceting breakb unrivalled febricity Fal musical modes in the MauritiusINTRODUCTIONMauritius is a small equatorial island set(p) at latitude 20 18 0 S and longitude 57 34 60 E. It has a tropic climatic condition. Mauritius has an bailiwick of intimately 2,040 sq km and is located to ab unwrap 2000 kilometers from east west of Africa and some 800 kilometers from Madagascar. The fix of Mauritius reads the latter(prenominal) a tropical boorish with stylerately august temperature shutting-to-end the year. Winter and summer argon the seasons that manifest onto the island.The island of Mauritius finds itself as whiz of the closely accessible islands in the Indian Ocean. Situated amid R confederation island and Rodrigues island, the island of Mauritius has gained the reputation, with with(p) the course of meter of that of the key and star of the Indian Ocean. The Mauritanian cosmos estimates for the year 2008 was or so 1, 260, 781 with an annual growt h rate of 0.7 %.Since the do important is beneathgoing major festeringal changes many industries dedicate im imageted here and consequently the estimate of expatriates in the country is on the deck up. These race whitethorn be a mailman of the un wellnessiness and of course those Mauritanians visiting the break ram febricity autochthonous argonas commode alike start septic and bring the unsoundness in the country.It is an indisput commensurate position that during the lapsed decades, Mauritius has witnessed a multitude of indispositions. The most owing(p) and y come to the forehful one being Chikungunya which has infested merely about 12000 Mauritians. Further more(prenominal), the history of sicknesss in Mauritius is marked with Malaria epizootics since colonial regimes and by the intensive effort of the Public wellness sector, the latter has been proclaimed get rid ofd by the realness wellness Organization in 1973. whatever geezerhood ago many of the realms citizens were non awargon of what was dandy pyrexia febrility even though it had already occurred in the country plainly on that point was not mass transmittance by the computer computer computer computer computer computer virus. Providentially, the moment of reasons in direct in advance was neverthe lean one or dickens and by the completion quislingism between the Ministry Of wellness and the give psyche the plaza was under regard and therefore no further positive case of dandy pyrexiaishness febrility were put down.The Mauritian goernment is putting forward all steps to prevent an epidemic rather than to rush for conquerling it when it has already hit the tribe. The Ministry of Health is sniping on a list which highlights all piss supply retaining sites and is identifying the hots sesss of much(prenominal) sites that be li qualified to energise proliferation of mosquitoes this process is carried out break offly year. F urthermore, an achievement plan is being prep ard by the ministry which gives a stationout of which and what job is to be make by which arm of the ministry or separate stakeholders (anonymous, 2009). dandy febrilityishnessishnessishness viruses are place by the genus genus genus genus genus genus Aedes species. Two known species the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are senders of the unsoundness. The Aedes albopictus support be anchor in epic standard all around the island whereas Aedes aegypti is said to be eradicated from the country. anguish on the abundance of mosquitoes is carried out by the entomological section end-to-end the year. all in all sites where mosquitoes that dismiss be senders of distemper are seen, they are referred to the virtuallyby health office for a larviciding to be carried out at that regularise and in the vicinity.Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is known as the Asian Tiger mosquito (Robertson and Hu, 1988). Aedes albopictus is aut ochthonal to Southeast Asia, hardly now occurs throughout the orbit. The worldwide sp invest of Aedes albopictus during the precedent 20 days has ca apply apprehension in the center of prevalent health officers and scientists over the surmisal that the introduction of this species allow for aggrandise the peril of epidemic breakbone fever fever and other arboviruses in countries where it has constrain ceremonious (Gubler, 2003).AimThe aim of this champaign is mainly to evaluate the durability of the mark measures taken to prevent breakbone fever fever in Mauritius. accent exit be laid on the steps taken before, during and by and by the unhealthiness feature. This might highlight the short glide paths that Mauritius face in narrate to care blasts of indispositions.Objectives of studyThe objectives of this dissertation are to evaluate the man historic periodment, procedures and legislation that are employ in Mauritius during outbreaks of breakbone fever fever. Furthermore, most interest is geared towards the application of chemicals, baulk measures, and health education of the populace carried out by the Ministry of Health caliber of behavior to prevent the occurrence of the illness and in like manner to annihi after-hours if ever found in the island. To eluci catch the efficientness of fogging, larviciding carried out in the country and health education of the public.CHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.0 breakbone fever fever2.0.1 popular considerationsbreakbone fever fever and dandy fever haemorrhagic fever were start-off set in the 1950s, during the dandy fever epidemics in Philippines and Thailand and by 1975 it had decease a lead-in cause of hospitalization and death among children in many countries found in that region (Lloyd, 2003). In the year 1779 Egypt and Java had breakbone fever- similar epidemics, but it is thought that they were ca apply by the chikungunya virus (Carey, 1971). dengue fever virus belongs to th e genus Flavivirus, Family Flavivaridae and at that place are quartette serotypes of the virus ( retreat-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN 4). All the four serotypes contribute cause dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever and even dengue knock syndrome (Ramchurn et al, 2009). The four viruses are closely link up but are distinct. Millions of commonwealth residing in tropical areas of the world are affected by epidemics of dengue fever. dengue fever fever is associated with the repelling form dengue hemorrhagic fever/ dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS) that is seen largely in children and nevertheless prominents similarly are attained by the disease.In the 19th and beforehand(predicate) twentieth centuries dengue or dengue-like epidemics were account in the Americas, Southern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Australia and on various islands in the Indian Ocean, South and Central Pacific and the Caribbean (Ehrenkranz et al, 1971). Generally these epidemics consisted of nonfatal feverish illnesses, practically coup lead with rash and either muscle or conjunction striving (Carey, 1971). Deaths occurred during dengue epidemics in Australia in 1897 and in Greece in 1928, when over coke0 deaths were reported (Halstead, 1980). haemorrhagic demonstrations, including gastroin visitationinal haemorrhage, were described during dengue epidemics in Texas and atomic derive 57 in 1922 (Scott, 1923). Nevertheless through the first half of the 20th century, dengue was generally described as a self-limited, nonfatal feverous illness, with fooling hemorrhagic manifestations such as red spots, acute bleeding from the nostril, nasal consonant cavity, or nasopharynx, gingival bleeding and menorrhagia that save once in a blue moon resulted in more stinkpot or fatal outcomes.During the last decade, dengue infection along with its complications has been on the rise all over the world. Their geo chartical spread is change magnitude unaccompanied 5 countr ies documented dengue in the 1950s but to date there are more than 100 countries reporting the incidence of dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (Guha -Sapi Schimmer, 2005). Dengue is found in tropical and sub-tropical climates worldwide, mostly in urban and semi-urban areas (WHO, 2009).Dengue fever is a in truth infectious mosquito borne viral disease characterized by either a round the bend-mannered febrile syndrome or the classic incapacitating disease with crisp onset of high fever, skanky geniusache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and bone or joint pains, nausea and vomiting and rash. Skin hemorrhages are not uncommon. Leukopenia is usually seen and thrombocytopenia may be observed (WHO 1997).Dengue is a flu-like mosquito-borne disease and has a soaring capacity for epidemic outbreaks, which according to the World Health Organization (2009) affects 50-100 million people each year in the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. Dengue is cited as being one of t he most signifi hobot mosquito-borne disease affecting pityings and as a major supranational public health concern (WHO 2009). Dengue fever is predominantly transfer by Aedes species which have adapted themselves to liveliness near human rest home (Hales et al., 2002).The dengue virus is a member of the family Flaviviridae virus, transmitted through the pungent of septic Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquito. The Aedes aegypti mosquito usually bites in opening(a) and lately in the good by and bynoon whereas the proficient mosquito Aedes albopictus is an aggressive solar daylight biter, which is to a fault known to bite too soon in the morning, late afternoon (Knight and Hull, 1952) and at night (Murray and Marks, 1984). This biter is usually an outdoor bristly mosquito, but it likewise bites in spite of appearance (Hawley, 1988). Generally the mosquitoes bite at ground level (MacDonald and Traub, 1960, cited in Hawley, 1988). female persons impart bite any are a of exposed skin, but favour the ankles and knees (McClelland et al., 1973 Robertson and Hu, 1935). The measure amid the bite of a mosquito carrying dengue virus and the apparition of symptoms ranges from 4 to 6 years, with a range of 3 to 14 long period.2.0.2 Pathogenicity of Dengue fever1. well and mild infectionIt is rattling common.2. Dengue pyrexia (primary infection)Dengue fever is characterized by increase in torso temperature severe hurt of the forehead retro-ocular pain muscle and joint pain and widespread maculopapular inflammation. Conjunctiva may become red. Other common problems that may arise are diarrhea, vomiting, nausea and abdominal pain. Fear of light, sore throat, increase in the size of the lymph knob and bleeding tendencies may in like manner happen. The illness lasts 5 to 7 days. electric resistance is lifelong. On the other side the incidence of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever or Dengue coldcock syndrome increases if the individual has immunity or ha s already been infect before with a different serotype. Even after some(prenominal) calendar months of retrieval some patients may experience de bear onion and fatigue.3. Dengue Hemorrhagic feverThe well-known feature is bleeding. It happens when a mortal is infected twice but with a different dengue virus serotypes or infrequently by primary infection is common in kids Under 15 years of Age (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). on that point is sudden rise in temperature and other manifestations of Dengue fever. Petechiae, effortless bruising, gingival bleeding and epistaxis are common. In severe cases bleeding of the gastrointestinal tract shadower be observed. In children, we jakes have an increase in the size of the spleen and the liver.4. Dengue Shock SyndromeThe prominent feature is hypotension. It usually occurs in people infra 15 years of age. The clinical features include weak pulse with nail line of business pressure, cold and clammy skin (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998).2.0.3 Mode of transmission of dengue virusChikungunya and dengue viruses are transmitted to humans by the bites of infected mosquitoes. In contrast, Aedes albopictus is abundant and may be the only primary(prenominal) vector of these viruses on the islands. Both species bite mainly during the day clip, particularly in the early hours after dawn and for 2-3 hours before darkness. Aedes albopictus is more wide awake open whereas Ae. aegypti typicly feeds and rests more indoors (WHO 2008).In the musical rhythm of dengue, the craniate military is man and the Aedes species the vectors. The disease is acquired only when bitten by distaff mosquitoes, as the womanish feed on melody in regulate for the development of their ball whereas the male mosquitoes are not infectious collectible to the accompaniment that they feed only on nectars rather than blood. In 8-10 days the infected mosquito is able to transmit the virus to other people. Thus the pedal of transmission takes only 14 days. One dengue-infected female mosquito is qualified of biting and infecting some(prenominal) people during one feeding session.The dengue mosquito frequents backyards in seem of blockers retention water supply inside and outside the place, such as cans, buckets, jars, and vases, pot hearty kit and caboodle dishes, birdbaths, boats, tyres discarded with no rims, roof gutters blocked by leaves liaison containers, tarpaulins and char plastic.It can also breed in natural containers likebromeliads locomote palm fronds.In drier conditions it also breeds in water insubterranean sites such as wells, telecommunication pits, sump pits, gully traps. transmittance cycle of dengue results from a complex system based on some(prenominal) main constituents like the density of susceptible legions, environmental conditions and the social movement of one or more serotypes of the dengue virus. The tote up of confirmed dengue cases has been increasing owing to the fact that the world is undergoing rapid urbanization and its population is also on the rise, disposal of non-biodegradable containers, rapid transportation and poor living conditions such as poor water supply and very high-minded scavenging operate at squatter areas (Satwant, 2001).Various studies have shown that the Aedes albopictus is able to transmit all the 4 serotypes of dengue. Aedes albopictus mosquito can serve as an all classical(predicate) maintenance vector of dengue viruses in endemic areas, and modernistic endemic areas may be initiated by importation of vertically infected bullock blocks (Gubler, 2002). That is the infected Aedes mosquito can pass the dengue virus to its publication and when the nut will develop into mature mosquitoes they will be already infected, thence capable of causing infection of human beings or even pass the virus to their progeny.Transmission cycle of dengue virus by the Aedes aegypti mosquito starts with a soulfulness infected with the dengue virus. T he blood of the person will contain the virus thus circulating in his body and this is called a viremia which will last for about 5 days. During this period, an uninfected female Aedes aegypti mosquito bites the infected person and acquires the dengue virus. within the mosquito, tax return of the dengue virus occurs and this process usually takes between 8-12 days, after which the female mosquito can transmit the virus upon a blood meal. erstwhile infected the virus takes 4-7 days to replicate within the new host (the person whom the infected mosquito bite) before inception of symptoms.Symptoms may last from iii to 10 days, with an average of five days, after the onset of symptoms. Hence, the disease persists some(prenominal) days after apparition of symptoms (CDC Dengue Slideset).2.0.4 Lifecycle of Aedes mosquitoThe mosquito goes through four separate and distinct stages of its life cycle and they are as follows ballock, Larva, pupa, and big. apiece of these stages can be e asily recognized by their special appearance.Egg nut are laid one at a time and they tramp on the appear of the water. Aedes species do not make egg rafts but lay their orchis separately. Aedes lay their testis on damp soil that will be swamp by water. Most eggs hatch into larvae within 48 hours.Larva The larva lives in the water where they at last undergo a molting process to become a pupa. Pupa The immature stage is a resting, non-feeding stage and is the time the mosquito turns into an adult. It takes about dickens days before the adult is fully positive and upon perpetrate development, the pupal skin splits and the mosquito emerges as an adult.Adult The newly emerged adult rests on the surface of the water for a short time before flying away.In the Aedes mosquito family only the female bites because it requires protein to develop eggs, therefore if it bites a person infected with the dengue virus the mosquito becomes infectious after round 7 days. The mosquitoes are known to be biting at a highest relative absolute frequency at dawn and dusk. Some more factsThe average liveliness of a mosquito of the genus Aedes in Nature is 2 weeksMosquitoes may lay eggs about 3 times in his life, and about 100 eggs are produced each time.The eggs can live in run dry conditions until approximately 9 months, after which they can hatch if it is cogitation to conditions, i.e nutriment and waterSourcehttp//dengue-feverdisease.blogspot.com/2008/02/lifecycle-of-aedes-mosquito.html accessed on 05.12.092.0.5 Investigation for dengue infections lab results mitigate in the number of white blood cell and computer peripheral neutrophils in the blood, abnormal increase in the number of lymphocytes in bloodstream and very low amount of platelets in the blood.RadiologyX-ray of the vanity normally shows pleural effusion and seldom pericardial effusion sonographyuse to detect pericardial effusion and 2) presence of excess smooths in the hoo-hah amid the tissues lini ng the abdomen and abdominal organ.TestsLaboratory diagnosis is done by detection of virus in specimen-serum at the virology laboratory. Culture is done in cell line derived from A. albopictus cell. Immunoflurescent techniques are utilise to detect viral replications. The virus can be isolated in patients with fever.SerologyIgM is noticeable in 90 % of patients by the 6th days of illness. Serum collect early may give false negative result. IgM can also be detect 2-3 months after. It is not affirmable to identify serotype with serologic tests. In case where the IgM test is Positive it may signify juvenile infection with Dengue fever. However definitive diagnosis can only be made if the virus is isolated or the virus genome is detected by PCR. Seroconversion or boost in titer may suggest fresh infection.The appropriate samples for PCR test include plasma and serum. molecular test is highly sensitive but it can be used in patients only with viraemia (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). 2.0.6 TreatmentThe managing of dengue fever can be enhanced with bed rest, passable fluid intake, plus go for of fever and pain with antipyretics in addition to analgesics (e.g. paracetamol). For the supplementary ruthless manifestations of dengue virus infection, correct management requires early identification and swift endovenous fluid substitution. Blood transfusion may be necessary in cases.There is menstruationly no vaccine is visible(prenominal) to shield against dengue infection. The current lack of a booming vaccine against the dengue virus causes ginmill methods to be approached by plummeting disease vector population, with Integrated canker counseling political programs for mosquito tone down.These employ a mishmash of concord strategies, including mosquito surveillance, source diminution, eradicating larvae and eradicating adult mosquitoes (Ooi et al. 2007). Eradicating adult mosquitoes alone is fruitless in manoeuverling mosquito populations because it is comp lex to cope the unachievable habitat of the adults. Mosquito larvae are left to carry on their development, and they speedily alternate the adults. Nevertheless, mosquitoes can become resistant if pesticides are overused.2.0.7 Dengue fever in MauritiusDengue virus infections are emerging as the major ones in Southeast Asia. Global warming may worsen the occurrence of dengue fever. Since very last few years mixed outbreak of chikungunya and occasional cases of dengue fever have been reported on R nubble Island and other South West Indian Ocean countries. From frame in 2005 trough March 2006 it is estimated that about 204000 people in R northern Island may have been infected by the chikungunya virus, which furthermore shows that there is presence of the transmittance vectors of the disease on the island which are also the vectors of dengue fever as well. Hereafter, the other South West Indian ocean countries were not spared from infection from the chikungunya virus.An outbreak of dengue fever was reported in Madagascar more specifically in the city of Toamasina that started mid-January 2006 and rare cases of chikungunya were also reported mid-February. Maldives also have suffered from a dengue outbreak in year 2006 where 602 people were pretend to be infected among which there were some severe form of dengue fever that is 64 dengue hemorrhagic fever cases and 9 cases of dengue shock syndrome (WHO 2006).In Mauritius the first case of dengue fever dates to the 1976s and it was contained thus limiting the disease from spreading. Then we had a case of import dengue from a person who visited an endemic dengue area in January 2008 (CDCU). The main vectors of the disease remain the Aedes mosquitoes, among which the Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector and Aedes albopictus the secondary one. The mosquito found to be spreading dengue fever and Chikungunya in Mauritius is the Aedes albopictus (CDCU 2009). It is to be noted that in Mauritius we had both the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, referable to the intense anti-malaria campaign during the year 1952 the primary carrier of the dengue fever, the Aedes aegypti have been successfully eradicated. S coin bank very arcsecond amounts of this mosquito can be seen whereas the Aedes albopictus is abundant. Dengue is transmitted from person to person through the biting of infected mosquitoes.Most recently we had a impermanent epidemic of re-emerged dengue fever in Mauritius that started in the month of June 2009 which was imported. The mild fever was first localized in the city of Port Louis, where there were 192 cases and so we did have some sporadic cases in other regions of the island. Mosquito fogging and larviciding in whole Port Louis started on 3rd June 2009, and were repeated every sevener days. Fogging was carried out outdoors early in the morning, early evenings and sometimes public treasury late in the evenings (Dengue social unit 2009).The Ministry of Healt h and Quality of Life of Mauritius took the situation as being severe and all medium possible to contain the disease were put into action. Like the Special Mobile Force and workforce from other Ministries which joined the Ministry of Health to fight the dengue fever. Public watchfulness campaigns on the requisite to hunt and eliminate mosquito bearing sites at home and in the neighbourhood and to protect oneself against mosquito bites were carried out through radio, television and the press through a public private partnership. Detailed information leaflets were also distributed, door to door distribution of pamphlets showing pictures of possible breeding sites for mosquitoes and products to be used to prevent mosquito bite were carried out by the primary health care personnels. Target groups included the public, residential area groups and school children (Ramchurn et al, 2009).By the end of the month August no new or suspected cases of dengue were recorded in any of the countr ys hospital. But s bank the instruction and barroom program were continued throughout the island as the summer season was coming near hence reappearance of the dengue fever was possible collectible to the close temperature, favorable for larvae development. The fear of having the virus again was collectible to the possibility of the infected mosquitoes to pass the virus to their progeny. Fortunately, till February 2010 no suspected case of dengue fever was reported from any in the country (Dengue unit 2010).2.1 sender surveillance and control programEver since mosquitoes are capable of transmission diseases like dengue and chikungunya, till now it has not been possible to eradicate the mosquitoes completely from their originating site. The best way to monitor or control vector-borne diseases is to control or limit the population of the vector to such an extent that disease transmission is very low or even stopped. In rescript to achieve this goal, it is imperative to know all about the mosquito knobbed in the transmission of the disease.Detailed knowledge of all aspects such as the breeding sites, different features of the mosquito at different stages, feeding habits, mating, resting and structure and most significantly without forgetting the lifecycle of the mosquito, are the main required things in order to be able to break the chain of transmission. Furthermore, the only way to prevent infection of people who have not suffered from dengue is to control the population of dengue vector (Ooi et al.2001) and of course personal precaution has also proved to be effective in reducing the risk of being infected by a mosquito.Since no vaccine is yet available for dengue the only mode to control dengue fever is the control the amount of the disease vector that is of the Aedes mosquitoes. The control strategies of these mosquitoes are 1) carrying out larviciding -spraying a chemical called die away in any water retaining place which kill the larvae of the mosquitoes hence interrupting the cycle to be completed, 2) fogging operation- a thermal fogger is used to propel exhaust fumes of aquamarine K-Othriner which when is in contact with a mosquito kills it, thus the amount of developed or simply mature mosquitoes are dressd and 3) health education- duologue are organized for the members of the public, for children in schools, colleges, etc.Entomological survey is an important and entire part of dengue prevention and control. The effect of the intervention by the community can directly affect the ecology of the vectors that is the Aedes mosquitoes.The transmissible disorder mesh Unit (CDCU) is the unit which is mostly concerned for the control of contagious diseases such as Malaria, Dengue fever, Chikungunya, and other infectious diseases. In Mauritius, surveillance, disease prevention and education of infectious diseases are mainly carried out by the Health Inspectorate Cadre. In Mauritius, we have the Public Health run (Sec tion 32A) which is used in case where there is presence of a mosquito borne disease in the island.The potential for predation to prevent pathogen invasion or reduce disease prevalence in a host population also has implications for the biologic control of vector populations. Predators have been introduced, or proposed, as biological control agents of vectors for various diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and Lyme disease (Jenkins 1964 Legner 1995 Stauffer et al. 1997 Samish Rehacek 1999 Scholte et al. 2005 Kumar Hwang 2006 Ostfeld et al. 2006 footer Lynch 2007). Several recent studies suggest that predator introductions led to a decline in local cases of dengue fever in Vietnam and Thailand (Kay Nam 2005 Kittayapong et al. 2008), and malaria in India (Ghosh et al. 2005 Ghosh Dash 2007).2.2 Biology of Aedes albopictus (Skuse)Aedes albopictus are two travel insects from the family Culicidae of the order Diptera. They are among the best known groups due to their splendor as pests and as vectors of diseases. They are easily identified due to a combination of the following characters long trunk projecting head charisma of scales on the wing veins, a tassel of scales along the posterior terminus ad quem of the wing, and the typical wing venation, the second, fourth and fifth longitudinal veins being branched (Miyagi and Toma 2000).Female mosquitoes feed on blood and they have highly specialize moth part for discriminating host skin and blood sucking (Wahid et al. 2002). Aedes species are normally day-time bitters and active during the day. During this time, they have eyeshades of landing and biting activity. The peak time for Aedes albopictus occurred about one hour after break of day and then(prenominal) before sunset (Abu Hassan et al. 1996). Nevertheless, the rate of biting varies depending on the mosquito age and time of the day (Xue and Barnard 1996).CHAPTER 3DATA COLLECTION3.1 IntroductionIn this chapter, a summary of the various steps that wa s undertaken to finalize the query is attempted. The research work was started as from the month of September 2009 to the end of January 2010.3.2 METHODOLOGYIn order to assess the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever, info were self-possessed from the different partners who are involved in the control and prevention of dengue fever in Mauritius.Such data were imperturbable from books, newspapers, produce articles, magazines and official statistics from the Central Statistics Office, Dengue Unit, Communicable Disease Control Unit and the Ministry of Health Quality of Life.Moreover, constructive discussions were entertained with people who are in touch with the matters connecting to the piece of work. Search through the internet, review of available documents and by rights classifying the information that would be used during the study.3.3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OBTAINEDQuestions related with the way of application of the different cont rol measures were selected for analysis from the filled questionnaires. Moreover, each particular question was analyzed by using SPSS software which provided the frequency and percentages and hence Microsoft Excel 2007 was used to express the data in forms of percentages, tables, patterns, graphs, pie graphs and charts. Chapter 4 purpose I- info Analysis4.01 IntroductionThis chapter of the thesis will be dealings with the data collected from different stakeholders involved in the fight against dengue fever. Data collected mainly from the Communicable Disease Control Unit, Dengue Unit, and certain(p) Health Offices of the country and the media will be expressed in figures. This section will be divided in to two parts data analysis and press cot analysis. Much attention will be oriented towards the control measures in Port Louis, as the level best number of cases occurred there and eventually the island in whole.4.02 Progress of the disease through June 2009 in Port LouisFigure 4.1 Number of cases each day during the month of June 2009From figure 4.1 it can be seen that the first case was detected on second June 2009 and the utmost number of cases reported to the hospitals was around the 10th to thirteenth day of the same month. The number of confirmed cases by the end of June 2009 had change magnitude to less than five.4.03 Age of people infected with dengue virusFrom the in a higher place chart (Fig 4.2) it can seen that about 34.55 % of the total number of cases (246 confirmed) of dengue were assailable ones that is the recent and the elderly.4.04 Aqua K Othriner used for fogging processAqua K Othriner is a chemical used in mixture with another chemical substance called Nebolr, in thermal foggers to kill adult mosquitoes. Normally, the fogger produces fumes which in fact are fine droplets of the mixture which when in contact with a mosquito causes its death. The first day of fogging was started on 2nd June 2009 with a minimum three-d curium of Aqua K Othriner used, on the 7th day the maximum and throughout the rest of the days varying just a diminished in amount except for the 14th day.4.05 Number of inspections carried out during the ancient 8 years throughout theCountryStarting from the year 2001 till 2005 from the graph (fig 4.4) the number of inspections carried out by the health inspectorate cadre shows a slight decrease and suddenly in 2006 the number increases to approximately 3 close than that in 2005. In year 2007, the amount of inspections carried again decreases to 112,087 and eventually for 2008 the number decreases a bit more.4.06 Number of sanitary notices served during the past 8 yearsPublic Health ActSanitary notices are normally issued to the reference of nuisance, as for in this case the notices served were to cause removal of water collected in used tyres, drums, roof tops, etc. From the year 2001 till 2005 the number of such type of notices served was ranging between 4933 and 8013. For 2006 the figure w as the highest with 10657 of notices served and for the remaining 2 years a gradual decrease was noted.4.07 Number of contraventions taken for no(prenominal) abidance with the PublicHealth Laws NoticesFigurPreventing Dengue Fever in the MauritiusPreventing Dengue Fever in the MauritiusINTRODUCTIONMauritius is a small tropical island located at latitude 20 18 0 S and longitude 57 34 60 E. It has a tropical climatic condition. Mauritius has an area of about 2,040 sq km and is located to about 2000 kilometers from east west of Africa and some 800 kilometers from Madagascar. The positioning of Mauritius makes the latter a tropical country with moderately lofty temperature throughout the year. Winter and summer are the seasons that manifest onto the island.The island of Mauritius finds itself as one of the most accessible islands in the Indian Ocean. Situated amid Runion island and Rodrigues island, the island of Mauritius has gained the reputation, through the course of time of that of the key and star of the Indian Ocean. The Mauritian population estimates for the year 2008 was about 1, 260, 781 with an annual growth rate of 0.7 %.Since the country is undergoing major developmental changes many industries have implanted here and thus the number of expatriates in the country is on the rise. These people may be a carrier of the disease and of course those Mauritians visiting the dengue endemic areas can also become infected and bring the disease in the country.It is an trusted fact that during the lapsed decades, Mauritius has witnessed a multitude of diseases. The most prominent and recent one being Chikungunya which has infested merely about 12000 Mauritians. Furthermore, the history of diseases in Mauritius is marked with Malaria epidemics since colonial regimes and through the intensive effort of the Public Health sector, the latter has been proclaimed eradicated by the World Health Organization in 1973.Some years ago many of the realms citizens were not aw are of what was dengue fever even though it had already occurred in the country but there was not mass infection by the virus. Providentially, the number of cases reported beforehand was only one or two and through the close collaboration between the Ministry Of Health and the infected person the situation was under control and hence no further positive case of dengue were recorded.The Mauritian government is putting forward all steps to prevent an epidemic rather than to rush for controlling it when it has already hit the population. The Ministry of Health is working on a list which highlights all water retaining sites and is identifying the hotspots of such sites that are liable to cause proliferation of mosquitoes this process is carried out each year. Furthermore, an action plan is being prepared by the ministry which gives a layout of which and what job is to be done by which section of the ministry or other stakeholders (anonymous, 2009).Dengue viruses are transmitted by the A edes species. Two known species the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are vectors of the disease. The Aedes albopictus can be found in large quantity all around the island whereas Aedes aegypti is said to be eradicated from the country. Surveillance on the abundance of mosquitoes is carried out by the entomological section throughout the year. All sites where mosquitoes that can be vectors of disease are seen, they are referred to the nearby health office for a larviciding to be carried out at that place and in the vicinity.Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is known as the Asian Tiger mosquito (Robertson and Hu, 1988). Aedes albopictus is native to Southeast Asia, but now occurs throughout the world. The worldwide spread of Aedes albopictus during the precedent 20 years has caused apprehension in the midst of public health officers and scientists over the possibility that the introduction of this species will amplify the risk of epidemic dengue fever and other arboviruses in countries where it has become established (Gubler, 2003).AimThe aim of this study is mainly to evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever in Mauritius. Emphasis will be laid on the steps taken before, during and after the disease occurrence. This might highlight the shortcomings that Mauritius face in order to manage outbreaks of diseases.Objectives of studyThe objectives of this dissertation are to evaluate the management, procedures and legislation that are implemented in Mauritius during outbreaks of dengue fever. Furthermore, most interest is geared towards the application of chemicals, preventive measures, and health education of the public carried out by the Ministry of Health Quality of Life to prevent the occurrence of the disease and also to annihilate if ever found in the island. To elucidate the effectiveness of fogging, larviciding carried out in the country and health education of the public.CHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.0 Dengue2.0.1 General con siderationsDengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever were first identified in the 1950s, during the dengue epidemics in Philippines and Thailand and by 1975 it had become a leading cause of hospitalization and death among children in many countries found in that region (Lloyd, 2003). In the year 1779 Egypt and Java had dengue-like epidemics, but it is thought that they were caused by the chikungunya virus (Carey, 1971).Dengue virus belongs to the genus Flavivirus, Family Flavivaridae and there are four serotypes of the virus (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN 4). All the four serotypes can cause dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever and even dengue shock syndrome (Ramchurn et al, 2009). The four viruses are closely related but are distinct. Millions of people residing in tropical areas of the world are affected by epidemics of dengue fever. Dengue fever is associated with the severe form dengue hemorrhagic fever/ dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS) that is seen mostly in children and nevert heless adults also are attained by the disease.In the 19th and early 20th centuries dengue or dengue-like epidemics were reported in the Americas, Southern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Australia and on various islands in the Indian Ocean, South and Central Pacific and the Caribbean (Ehrenkranz et al, 1971). Generally these epidemics consisted of nonfatal feverish illnesses, often coupled with rash and either muscle or joint pains (Carey, 1971). Deaths occurred during dengue epidemics in Australia in 1897 and in Greece in 1928, when over metre deaths were reported (Halstead, 1980). Hemorrhagic demonstrations, including gastrointestinal bleeding, were described during dengue epidemics in Texas and Louisiana in 1922 (Scott, 1923). Nevertheless through the first half of the 20th century, dengue was generally described as a self-limited, nonfatal febrile illness, with occasional hemorrhagic manifestations such as red spots, acute hemorrhage from the nostril, nasal cav ity, or nasopharynx, gingival bleeding and menorrhagia that only once in a blue moon resulted in more stern or fatal outcomes.During the last decade, dengue infection along with its complications has been on the rise all over the world. Their geographical spread is increasing only 5 countries documented dengue in the 1950s but to date there are more than 100 countries reporting the incidence of dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (Guha -Sapi Schimmer, 2005). Dengue is found in tropical and sub-tropical climates worldwide, mostly in urban and semi-urban areas (WHO, 2009).Dengue fever is a very infectious mosquito borne viral disease characterized by either a mild febrile syndrome or the classic incapacitating disease with abrupt onset of high fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and bone or joint pains, nausea and vomiting and rash. Skin hemorrhages are not uncommon. Leukopenia is usually seen and thrombocytopenia may be observed (WHO 1997).Dengue is a flu-like mosquito-borne disease and has a soaring capacity for epidemic outbreaks, which according to the World Health Organization (2009) affects 50-100 million people each year in the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. Dengue is cited as being one of the most significant mosquito-borne disease affecting humans and as a major international public health concern (WHO 2009). Dengue fever is predominantly transmitted by Aedes species which have adapted themselves to living near human habitation (Hales et al., 2002).The dengue virus is a member of the family Flaviviridae virus, transmitted through the biting of infected Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquito. The Aedes aegypti mosquito normally bites indoor and late in the afternoon whereas the proficient mosquito Aedes albopictus is an aggressive daytime biter, which is also known to bite early in the morning, late afternoon (Knight and Hull, 1952) and at night (Murray and Marks, 1984). This biter is usually an outdoor biting mosquito, but it also bites indoors (Hawley, 1988). Generally the mosquitoes bite at ground level (MacDonald and Traub, 1960, cited in Hawley, 1988). Females will bite any area of exposed skin, but prefer the ankles and knees (McClelland et al., 1973 Robertson and Hu, 1935). The time amid the bite of a mosquito carrying dengue virus and the apparition of symptoms ranges from 4 to 6 days, with a range of 3 to 14 days.2.0.2 Pathogenicity of Dengue fever1. Asymptomatic and mild infectionIt is very common.2. Dengue Fever (primary infection)Dengue fever is characterized by increase in body temperature severe aching of the forehead retro-ocular pain muscle and joint pain and widespread maculopapular inflammation. Conjunctiva may become red. Other common problems that may arise are diarrhea, vomiting, nausea and abdominal pain. Fear of light, sore throat, increase in the size of the lymph node and bleeding tendencies may also happen. The illness lasts 5 to 7 days.Immunity is lifelong. On t he other side the incidence of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever or Dengue Shock syndrome increases if the person has immunity or has already been infected before with a different serotype. Even after several months of recovery some patients may experience depression and fatigue.3. Dengue Hemorrhagic feverThe well-known feature is bleeding. It happens when a person is infected twice but with a different dengue virus serotypes or infrequently by primary infection is common in kids Under 15 years of Age (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). There is sudden rise in temperature and other manifestations of Dengue fever. Petechiae, effortless bruising, gingival bleeding and epistaxis are common. In severe cases bleeding of the gastrointestinal tract can be observed. In children, we can have an increase in the size of the spleen and the liver.4. Dengue Shock SyndromeThe prominent feature is hypotension. It normally occurs in people below 15 years of age. The clinical features include weak pulse with narrow b lood pressure, cold and clammy skin (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998).2.0.3 Mode of transmission of dengue virusChikungunya and dengue viruses are transmitted to humans by the bites of infected mosquitoes. In contrast, Aedes albopictus is abundant and may be the only important vector of these viruses on the islands. Both species bite mainly during the daytime, particularly in the early hours after dawn and for 2-3 hours before darkness. Aedes albopictus is more active outdoors whereas Ae. aegypti typically feeds and rests more indoors (WHO 2008).In the cycle of dengue, the vertebrate host is man and the Aedes species the vectors. The disease is acquired only when bitten by female mosquitoes, as the female feed on blood in order for the development of their eggs whereas the male mosquitoes are not infectious due to the fact that they feed only on nectars rather than blood. In 8-10 days the infected mosquito is able to transmit the virus to other people. Thus the cycle of transmission takes only 14 days. One dengue-infected female mosquito is capable of biting and infecting several people during one feeding session.The dengue mosquito frequents backyards in search of containers holding water inside and outside the home, such as cans, buckets, jars, and vases, pot plant dishes, birdbaths, boats, tyres discarded with no rims, roof gutters blocked by leaves striking containers, tarpaulins and black plastic.It can also breed in natural containers likebromeliadsfallen palm fronds.In drier conditions it also breeds in water insubterranean sites such as wells, telecommunication pits, sump pits, gully traps.Transmission cycle of dengue results from a complex system based on several main constituents like the density of susceptible hosts, environmental conditions and the presence of one or more serotypes of the dengue virus. The number of confirmed dengue cases has been increasing owing to the fact that the world is undergoing rapid urbanization and its population is also on t he rise, disposal of non-biodegradable containers, rapid transportation and poor living conditions such as poor water supply and very rare scavenging services at squatter areas (Satwant, 2001).Various studies have shown that the Aedes albopictus is able to transmit all the 4 serotypes of dengue. Aedes albopictus mosquito can serve as an important maintenance vector of dengue viruses in endemic areas, and new endemic areas may be initiated by importation of vertically infected eggs (Gubler, 2002). That is the infected Aedes mosquito can pass the dengue virus to its progeny and when the eggs will develop into mature mosquitoes they will be already infected, hence capable of causing infection of human beings or even pass the virus to their progeny.Transmission cycle of dengue virus by the Aedes aegypti mosquito starts with a person infected with the dengue virus. The blood of the person will contain the virus thus circulating in his body and this is called a viremia which will last for about 5 days. During this period, an uninfected female Aedes aegypti mosquito bites the infected person and acquires the dengue virus.Within the mosquito, replication of the dengue virus occurs and this process usually takes between 8-12 days, after which the female mosquito can transmit the virus upon a blood meal. Once infected the virus takes 4-7 days to replicate within the new host (the person whom the infected mosquito bite) before inception of symptoms.Symptoms may last from three to 10 days, with an average of five days, after the onset of symptoms. Hence, the disease persists several days after apparition of symptoms (CDC Dengue Slideset).2.0.4 Lifecycle of Aedes mosquitoThe mosquito goes through four separate and distinct stages of its life cycle and they are as follows Egg, Larva, pupa, and adult. Each of these stages can be easily recognized by their special appearance.Egg Eggs are laid one at a time and they float on the surface of the water. Aedes species do not make egg rafts but lay their eggs separately. Aedes lay their eggs on damp soil that will be flooded by water. Most eggs hatch into larvae within 48 hours.Larva The larva lives in the water where they eventually undergo a molting process to become a pupa. Pupa The pupal stage is a resting, non-feeding stage and is the time the mosquito turns into an adult. It takes about two days before the adult is fully developed and upon complete development, the pupal skin splits and the mosquito emerges as an adult.Adult The newly emerged adult rests on the surface of the water for a short time before flying away.In the Aedes mosquito family only the female bites because it requires protein to develop eggs, therefore if it bites a person infected with the dengue virus the mosquito becomes infectious after approximately 7 days. The mosquitoes are known to be biting at a highest frequency at dawn and dusk. Some more factsThe average lifespan of a mosquito of the genus Aedes in Nature is 2 weeksMosquit oes may lay eggs about 3 times in his life, and about 100 eggs are produced each time.The eggs can live in dry conditions until approximately 9 months, after which they can hatch if it is subject to conditions, i.e food and waterSourcehttp//dengue-feverdisease.blogspot.com/2008/02/lifecycle-of-aedes-mosquito.html accessed on 05.12.092.0.5 Investigation for dengue infectionsLaboratory resultsDecrease in the number of white blood cell and peripheral neutrophils in the blood, abnormal increase in the number of lymphocytes in bloodstream and very low amount of platelets in the blood.RadiologyX-ray of the chest normally shows pleural effusion and seldom pericardial effusionUltrasoundUsed to detect pericardial effusion and 2) presence of excess fluids in the gap amid the tissues lining the abdomen and abdominal organ.TestsLaboratory diagnosis is done by detection of virus in specimen-serum at the virology laboratory. Culture is done in cell line derived from A. albopictus cell. Immunoflur escent techniques are used to detect viral replications. The virus can be isolated in patients with fever.SerologyIgM is detectable in 90 % of patients by the 6th days of illness. Serum collected early may give false negative result. IgM can also be detected 2-3 months after. It is not possible to identify serotype with serological tests. In case where the IgM test is Positive it may imply recent infection with Dengue fever. However definitive diagnosis can only be made if the virus is isolated or the virus genome is detected by PCR. Seroconversion or boost in titer may indicate fresh infection.The appropriate samples for PCR test include plasma and serum. Molecular test is highly sensitive but it can be used in patients only with viraemia (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998).2.0.6 TreatmentThe managing of dengue fever can be enhanced with bed rest, passable fluid intake, plus control of fever and pain with antipyretics in addition to analgesics (e.g. paracetamol). For the supplementary ruthl ess manifestations of dengue virus infection, correct management requires early identification and swift intravenous fluid substitution. Blood transfusion may be necessary in cases.There is currently no vaccine is available to shield against dengue infection. The current lack of a booming vaccine against the dengue virus causes prevention methods to be approached by plummeting disease vector population, with Integrated Pest Management programs for mosquito control.These employ a mishmash of control strategies, including mosquito surveillance, source diminution, eradicating larvae and eradicating adult mosquitoes (Ooi et al. 2007). Eradicating adult mosquitoes alone is fruitless in controlling mosquito populations because it is complex to treat the unattainable habitat of the adults. Mosquito larvae are left to carry on their development, and they quickly swap the adults. Nevertheless, mosquitoes can become resistant if pesticides are overused.2.0.7 Dengue fever in MauritiusDengue vi rus infections are emerging as the major ones in Southeast Asia. Global warming may worsen the occurrence of dengue fever. Since very last few years mixed outbreak of chikungunya and periodic cases of dengue fever have been reported on Runion Island and other South West Indian Ocean countries. From March 2005 till March 2006 it is estimated that about 204000 people in Runion Island may have been infected by the chikungunya virus, which furthermore shows that there is presence of the transmitting vectors of the disease on the island which are also the vectors of dengue fever as well. Hereafter, the other South West Indian ocean countries were not spared from infection from the chikungunya virus.An outbreak of dengue fever was reported in Madagascar more specifically in the city of Toamasina that started mid-January 2006 and rare cases of chikungunya were also reported mid-February. Maldives also have suffered from a dengue outbreak in year 2006 where 602 people were suspected to be i nfected among which there were some severe form of dengue fever that is 64 dengue hemorrhagic fever cases and 9 cases of dengue shock syndrome (WHO 2006).In Mauritius the first case of dengue fever dates to the 1976s and it was contained thus limiting the disease from spreading. Then we had a case of imported dengue from a person who visited an endemic dengue area in January 2008 (CDCU). The main vectors of the disease remain the Aedes mosquitoes, among which the Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector and Aedes albopictus the secondary one. The mosquito found to be spreading dengue fever and Chikungunya in Mauritius is the Aedes albopictus (CDCU 2009). It is to be noted that in Mauritius we had both the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, due to the intense anti-malaria campaign during the year 1952 the primary carrier of the dengue fever, the Aedes aegypti have been successfully eradicated. Still very minute amounts of this mosquito can be seen whereas the Aedes al bopictus is abundant. Dengue is transmitted from person to person through the biting of infected mosquitoes.Most recently we had a short-lived epidemic of re-emerged dengue fever in Mauritius that started in the month of June 2009 which was imported. The mild fever was first localized in the city of Port Louis, where there were 192 cases and then we did have some sporadic cases in other regions of the island. Mosquito fogging and larviciding in whole Port Louis started on 3rd June 2009, and were repeated every seven days. Fogging was carried out outdoors early in the morning, early evenings and sometimes till late in the evenings (Dengue Unit 2009).The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life of Mauritius took the situation as being severe and all medium possible to contain the disease were put into action. Like the Special Mobile Force and manpower from other Ministries which joined the Ministry of Health to fight the dengue fever. Public alertness campaigns on the requisite to hunt and eliminate mosquito breeding sites at home and in the neighbourhood and to protect oneself against mosquito bites were carried out through radio, television and the press through a public private partnership. Detailed information leaflets were also distributed, door to door distribution of pamphlets showing pictures of possible breeding sites for mosquitoes and products to be used to prevent mosquito bite were carried out by the primary health care personnels. Target groups included the public, community groups and school children (Ramchurn et al, 2009).By the end of the month August no new or suspected cases of dengue were recorded in any of the countrys hospital. But still the control and prevention program were continued throughout the island as the summer season was coming near hence reappearance of the dengue fever was possible due to the ambient temperature, favorable for larvae development. The fear of having the virus again was due to the possibility of the infected mosqu itoes to pass the virus to their progeny. Fortunately, till February 2010 no suspected case of dengue fever was reported from any in the country (Dengue Unit 2010).2.1 Vector surveillance and control programEver since mosquitoes are capable of transmitting diseases like dengue and chikungunya, till now it has not been possible to eradicate the mosquitoes completely from their originating site. The best way to monitor or control vector-borne diseases is to control or limit the population of the vector to such an extent that disease transmission is very low or even stopped. In order to achieve this goal, it is imperative to know all about the mosquito involved in the transmission of the disease.Detailed knowledge of all aspects such as the breeding sites, different features of the mosquito at different stages, feeding habits, mating, resting and structure and most importantly without forgetting the lifecycle of the mosquito, are the main required things in order to be able to break th e chain of transmission. Furthermore, the only way to prevent infection of people who have not suffered from dengue is to control the population of dengue vector (Ooi et al.2001) and of course personal precaution has also proved to be effective in reducing the risk of being infected by a mosquito.Since no vaccine is yet available for dengue the only mode to control dengue fever is the control the amount of the disease vector that is of the Aedes mosquitoes. The control strategies of these mosquitoes are 1) carrying out larviciding -spraying a chemical called abate in any water retaining place which kill the larvae of the mosquitoes hence interrupting the cycle to be completed, 2) fogging operation- a thermal fogger is used to propel fumes of Aqua K-Othriner which when is in contact with a mosquito kills it, thus the amount of developed or simply mature mosquitoes are reduced and 3) health education- talks are organized for the members of the public, for children in schools, colleges , etc.Entomological survey is an important and integral part of dengue prevention and control. The effect of the intervention by the community can directly affect the ecology of the vectors that is the Aedes mosquitoes.The Communicable Disease Control Unit (CDCU) is the unit which is mostly concerned for the control of communicable diseases such as Malaria, Dengue fever, Chikungunya, and other infectious diseases. In Mauritius, surveillance, disease prevention and education of infectious diseases are mainly carried out by the Health Inspectorate Cadre. In Mauritius, we have the Public Health Act (Section 32A) which is used in case where there is presence of a mosquito borne disease in the island.The potential for predation to prevent pathogen invasion or reduce disease prevalence in a host population also has implications for the biological control of vector populations. Predators have been introduced, or proposed, as biological control agents of vectors for various diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and Lyme disease (Jenkins 1964 Legner 1995 Stauffer et al. 1997 Samish Rehacek 1999 Scholte et al. 2005 Kumar Hwang 2006 Ostfeld et al. 2006 Walker Lynch 2007). Several recent studies suggest that predator introductions led to a decline in local cases of dengue fever in Vietnam and Thailand (Kay Nam 2005 Kittayapong et al. 2008), and malaria in India (Ghosh et al. 2005 Ghosh Dash 2007).2.2 Biology of Aedes albopictus (Skuse)Aedes albopictus are two winged insects from the family Culicidae of the order Diptera. They are among the best known groups due to their importance as pests and as vectors of diseases. They are easily identified due to a combination of the following characters long trunk projecting head charisma of scales on the wing veins, a tassel of scales along the posterior boundary of the wing, and the typical wing venation, the second, fourth and fifth longitudinal veins being branched (Miyagi and Toma 2000).Female mosquitoes feed on blood and they have highly specialized mothparts for piercing host skin and blood sucking (Wahid et al. 2002). Aedes species are normally day-time bitters and active during the day. During this time, they have peaks of landing and biting activity. The peak time for Aedes albopictus occurred about one hour after sunrise and then before sunset (Abu Hassan et al. 1996). Nevertheless, the rate of biting varies depending on the mosquito age and time of the day (Xue and Barnard 1996).CHAPTER 3DATA COLLECTION3.1 IntroductionIn this chapter, a summary of the various steps that was undertaken to finalize the research is attempted. The research work was started as from the month of September 2009 to the end of January 2010.3.2 METHODOLOGYIn order to assess the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever, data were collected from the different partners who are involved in the control and prevention of dengue fever in Mauritius.Such data were collected from books, newspapers, publ ished articles, magazines and official statistics from the Central Statistics Office, Dengue Unit, Communicable Disease Control Unit and the Ministry of Health Quality of Life.Moreover, constructive discussions were entertained with people who are in touch with the matters connecting to the piece of work. Search through the internet, review of available documents and properly classifying the information that would be used during the study.3.3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OBTAINEDQuestions related with the way of application of the different control measures were selected for analysis from the filled questionnaires. Moreover, each particular question was analyzed by using SPSS software which provided the frequency and percentages and hence Microsoft Excel 2007 was used to express the data in forms of percentages, tables, figures, graphs, pie charts and charts. Chapter 4Part I-Data Analysis4.01 IntroductionThis chapter of the thesis will be dealing with the data collected from dif ferent stakeholders involved in the fight against dengue fever. Data collected mainly from the Communicable Disease Control Unit, Dengue Unit, and certain Health Offices of the country and the media will be expressed in figures. This section will be divided in to two parts data analysis and press cot analysis. Much attention will be oriented towards the control measures in Port Louis, as the maximum number of cases occurred there and eventually the island in whole.4.02 Progress of the disease through June 2009 in Port LouisFigure 4.1 Number of cases each day during the month of June 2009From figure 4.1 it can be seen that the first case was detected on 2nd June 2009 and the maximum number of cases reported to the hospitals was around the 10th to 13th day of the same month. The number of confirmed cases by the end of June 2009 had decreased to less than five.4.03 Age of people infected with dengue virusFrom the above chart (Fig 4.2) it can seen that about 34.55 % of the total number of cases (246 confirmed) of dengue were vulnerable ones that is the young and the elderly.4.04 Aqua K Othriner used for fogging processAqua K Othriner is a chemical used in mixture with another chemical substance called Nebolr, in thermal foggers to kill adult mosquitoes. Normally, the fogger produces fumes which in fact are fine droplets of the mixture which when in contact with a mosquito causes its death. The first day of fogging was started on 2nd June 2009 with a minimum cubic centimeter of Aqua K Othriner used, on the 7th day the maximum and throughout the rest of the days varying just a little in amount except for the 14th day.4.05 Number of inspections carried out during the past 8 years throughout theCountryStarting from the year 2001 till 2005 from the graph (fig 4.4) the number of inspections carried out by the health inspectorate cadre shows a slight decrease and suddenly in 2006 the number increases to approximately 3 fold than that in 2005. In year 2007, the amount of inspections carried again decreases to 112,087 and eventually for 2008 the number decreases a bit more.4.06 Number of sanitary notices served during the past 8 yearsPublic Health ActSanitary notices are normally issued to the author of nuisance, as for in this case the notices served were to cause removal of water collected in used tyres, drums, roof tops, etc. From the year 2001 till 2005 the number of such type of notices served was ranging between 4933 and 8013. For 2006 the figure was the highest with 10657 of notices served and for the remaining 2 years a gradual decrease was noted.4.07 Number of contraventions taken for none compliance with the PublicHealth Laws NoticesFigur